History of Islam
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This article is about the history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the history of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Muslim world. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Timeline of Islamic history.
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A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire extended from Spain in the west to Indus in the east. The subsequent empires such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids, Ajuuraan, Adal and Warsangali in Somalia, Mughals in India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace.
In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again, although one that was unable to master the challenges of the Early Modern period.
Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European Great powers. After the First World War, Ottoman territories (a Central Powers member) were partitioned into several nations under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.
Although affected by ideologies such as socialism and secularism during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues intensified during the early 21st century. Global interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and globalization changed the type of Islamic influence on the contemporary world.[1] In the contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic texts that advocate the unification of religion and state has spread, but the ideology has been criticized.
Major periods
Main article: Historiography of early Islam
The Islamic state and Muslim's system of government evolved through various stages.[2] The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrary. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These correspond to the early period of post-classical history. The "Decentralization" period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high period and late period of post-classical history. The "Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s to the late 1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as the National period, lasted from 1910s into the twenty-first century.
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- Further information: Timeline of Muslim history
- See also: Disputed issues in early Islamic history
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Islamic origins
In pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab people lived on the Arabian Plate. In the south of Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of post-classical Arabia), the Arabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Muhammad belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the Kaaba within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,[3] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).
Nakkaş Osman, Istanbul (1595)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima.
See also: Early scholars of Islam
City-states and Imperial period
Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate
After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr (632-634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan, (644-656), and Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests, advancing through Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa.Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation networks. To be close to the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the first welfare state Bayt al-mal.[4][5][6] The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.[7][8][9][10] The expansion of the state, was partially terminated between 638–639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and Levant respectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the whole of Sassanid Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were incorporated into Islamic State. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The Qur'an was standardized during this time.
Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.[11][12] As new areas joining the Islamic State, they also benefited from free trade, while trading with other areas in the Islamic State, so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed.[13] The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.[14][15][16] Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians.
In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.[17][18] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copts and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[19][20][21][22][23]
When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman Ibn Affan became the next caliph. As it is well known that Arabic language is written without vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers, people began having different dielects and phonics which was changing the exact meaning of verses in the Qur'an. This was brought to the notice of Uthman Ibn Affan. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.[24]
The Qur'an and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31] Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.[32] Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.[33]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[34][35][36][37] "Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46 [38] "O you who have believed, let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that - then those are the losers." Qur'an 63:9 [39] Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no stress on the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kept their own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew into cities themselves, like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[40] Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.
As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[41] Ali then assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fifth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty.[42][43] This brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.[44] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,[45] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[46]
After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the Kharijites,[47] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.[48] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.[48] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[49] and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.[50]
- Succession and Umayyad accession
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As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.[53][54][55] All this increased discontent.[56][57] The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to Baghdad.[58] A branch of the Ummayad family fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of al-Ándalus. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids.
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen,[59] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 with the Fitna of al-Ándalus.
In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.[63] From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.[64] With about 300 cavalrymen, he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.[65] Weakened by the civil wars the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete. Under the rule of Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Hussein ibn Ali the descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Later this concept was taken one step further and they started thinking, what if history took a different course and Ali was the first caliph and these ideas were later adopted by some Shia and institutionalised by the Safavids.
The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built by Abd al-Malik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna.
Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byzantine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer Spain using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sent Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.
Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[66] Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.[67] Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[68] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup.[69] Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a dynasty there.
Universal period and decentralization
Islamic Golden Age
Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden Age
The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands including the Balearics and Sicily.[70] The ruling party had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim.[71][72] Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age".[73] Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775), Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 — 813) and their immediate successors.[74]| Islamic States | ||
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Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[70] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[77]
The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. According to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their Mawali".[78] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, and the four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical Sufism. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[79] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major denominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary system of government.) The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.[80] In the early Islamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.[81][82]
Golden Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
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In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. Al-Mahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, Al-Hadi[84] was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.
According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. General Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his sceptre, seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.[87]
Regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.[88] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.[89] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavids and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.[90]High Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
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Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna, the Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.[92] The Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.
During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[93] His scientists originated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Mamluk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.[94]
Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.[95]
Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta'in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al-Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
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Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner[97] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.
His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (amir al-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanbalis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.
In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".
Also in the 930s, ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad founded the Būyid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.[98]
Middle Baghdad Abbasids
Early High Middle Ages
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The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph.[101]
During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and outlawed heresies such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine that the Qu'ran was created. He outlawed the Muʿtazila, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, Islamic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.[102] By 1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent.
During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power. Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.[103]
Late Baghdad Abbasids
Late High Middle Ages
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Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa[105] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundered Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.[106]
After the siege of Damascus (1134),[107] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.[108] His son, Al-Rashid failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.[109]
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders.
The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.
An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.
Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 Ögedei Khan commanded to raise up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.[110] In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight tumens.[111] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[112]
Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.
Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of CairoLate Middle Ages
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Fatimid Empire
Main article: Fatimids
Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh
"Islamic Cairo" building was named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Jamali.
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.[119]
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at al-Qāhira(Cairo) in 969.[120] The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[121] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[122] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.[123]
Fatimid caliphs
Early and High Middle Ages
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Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.[125]
Berbers and Iberian Umayyads
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid by a certain Ṭārif in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.[126]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Córdoba(912-961).[127] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Córdoba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Iberia,[128] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.[129] Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[130]
The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[131] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.[132]
Emirs of Córdoba
Main article: Emirs of Córdoba
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During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.[133] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.[134]
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. This good king died on the 29th of September, 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.[135][136]
Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald's nominations.[138]
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.
Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.[139][140][141]
Caliphs at Córdoba
Main article: Caliphate of Córdoba
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Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia
Main article: Almoravid dynasty
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Almohad caliphs
Main article: Almohad dynasty
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The Crusades
Main article: The Crusades
List of Crusades
Early period
· First Crusade 1095–1099
· Second Crusade 1147–1149
· Third Crusade 1187–1192
Low Period
· Fourth Crusade 1202–1204
· Fifth Crusade 1217–1221
· Sixth Crusade 1228–1229
Late period
· Seventh Crusade 1248–1254
· Eighth Crusade 1270
· Ninth Crusade 1271–1272
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.[144]
In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with the fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further expansion into Christendom[145] and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.
Ayyubid dynasty
Main article: Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin
and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and
conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle
East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria,
northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to
the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested
control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually
established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers
attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until
Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over
most of Syria, excluding Aleppo,
by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by
slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by
an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested
control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.[146]Sultans of Egypt
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Sultans and Amirs of Damascus
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Mongol invasions
See also: Ilkhanate and Golden Horde
After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia
began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation.
The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city
of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.[147]
With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut.[148]
Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.[149][150][151] In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatolia. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many branches of Islam, including the Mughals of India.[152][153]
The Mamluks
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250–1517).[154] The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb).[155]As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo.[156]
Bahri Sultans
Main article: Bahri dynasty
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Main article: Burji dynasty
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Africa
Main article: Islam in Africa
The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled Mesopotamia, had invaded Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzantine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Arab hands.Horn of Africa
Main articles: Islam in Ethiopia and Islam in Somalia
The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa
is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and
social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the
other side of the Red Sea, in the Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.[157]Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern Somalia to seek protection from the Quraysh at the court of the Aksumite Emperor in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.[157]
Maghreb
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idris I.[160]
The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.[161]
The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.[162]
Great Lakes
Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.[163] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Zayd were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema (wanawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.[164]
West Africa
Much later, Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, he retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muhammed Bello.Asia and the Far East
Main article: Islam in Asia
South Asia
Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent
On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, the first mosque of India was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muhammad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records suggest that the Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[165]Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the Delhi Sultanates.[166]
In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Rajasthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.[167]
See also: Islam in India
China
Further information: History of Islam in China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu Talib and Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the Chittagong–Kamrup–Manipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit
to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed
for China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to
lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[168]Southeast Asia
Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century CE,[76] particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Arab traders from Yeman already had a presence in Asia through trading and sea travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also from Africa, India, and so on including ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[169]According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of Ceylon. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr.Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)[170] According to the atlas by geographer Al Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian or Indonesia Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled, it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.[171]
Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into Malay; a tangible product of this is the Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[172] By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Prince.
Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines via the southern island of Mindanao.[173] The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted form this are the present-day Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the northern Luzon island, such as the Kingdom of Maynila and the Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and Christianised with the majority of the archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century.
As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[174] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[76]
Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Bruneian Empire established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of Brunei Darussalam.[76]
Fragmentation period
Three Early Modern empires
Main article: Early modern history
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient administration.[175]
By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and by the
early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last
Muslim empire collapsed.Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the Ottoman Empire's relationship with its tributary states. In the contemporary National period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that had armistice or peace agreements with Muslim governments. Today, the actual status of the non-Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged equality to tributary states.[176]
Mughal Empire
Main article: Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah,
who administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A
year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the
lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year
old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great),
in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred
through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir
and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas
including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.[76][177]The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[76][177] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.[177]
Safavid Empire
Main article: Safavids
The Safavid dynasty rose to power in Tabriz in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran. The Safavids were originally Sufi and Iran was Sunni.[178] After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians behind him Ismail I
made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver
Shia so that he could get them to fight the Sunni Ottomans.[179]This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The Zaydis at that time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them. Abu Hanifah and Zayd ibn Ali were also very good friends. The Zaydis were also forced to convert.[116][117][118]
Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.
In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carpetmaking became a major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and hashish and removing casinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.
Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2).[180]
The Safavid Dynasty was toppled in 1722 by the Hotaki dynasty, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism.
Salafi
In the 18th century a reform and revival movement was initiated led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of Muhammad's Companions.[181]Ottoman Empire
Main article: Ottoman Empire
Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413.[76]
Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Mehmed II renamed it Istanbul. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.[76] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of gunpowder.[175]
Modern history
Main article: Modern history
The modern age
brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the
Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The Great Powers globalized economically and colonized much of the region.Ottoman Empire partition
Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers'
defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by
Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the treaty of Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Latin script,
separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated
woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with women's suffrage in the west.[187]Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."[188] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.[189]
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nationalism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turkey organized their governments sought to develop national pride amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.
Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism, which found its way into the Saudi royal family.
See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence
Indian partition
Main article: Partition of India
The partition of India
refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereign states of
India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of Bengal and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.[190]In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called Bangladesh. Pakistan in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the world, following Indonesia. Pakistan is a declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim nation to have that status.
Post-1945 era
Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (29 years his junior) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. Saud then abdicated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King.
The Six-Day War of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the Suez canal, and may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar Gaddafi in power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970, Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's demands for price increases.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the Yom Kippur War, broke out just as oil company began meeting with OPEC leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands and the war strengthened their unity. The Arab defeats in 1967 and 1973 triggered the 1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
Persian revolutions
The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and the restriction of the power of the Shah (king). Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The modernist and conservative blocks then began to fight with each other. World War I intervened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and threatened the country's independence. The constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of the Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.[191]In 1979 the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja. Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, and the Islamics captured power. Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged Saddam Hussein to invade Iran,[192] which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.
National period
Main article: Contemporary history
| Contemporary National period |
|---|
Arab-Israeli conflict
Main article: Arab–Israeli conflict
The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions
and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern State of Israel as a Jewish nation state, the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab states and the State of Israel (see related Israeli-Palestinian conflict).
Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel,
animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states.
Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations
elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such
as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture, Christianity, Judaism, Jewish culture, or for ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Muslim world,[193][194] others oppose this view.[195]
Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on
supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the
other side in many countries around the world.Salafi and the Safavid
Some have argued that the development of the two opposite fringes, the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam the Twelver Shia version and its reinforcement by the Iranian Revolution and the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the Iran–Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.[196][197] Many have argued that these governments, them selves do not conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, and continue to deal in usury and in Government bonds.[198][199][200][201] While their rulers like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and some ayatollah's in Iran on the List of Iranian people by net worth and the House of Saud, accumulated huge personal wealth that some have argued is at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad and the Quran. Wealth that some think should belong in Bayt al-mal or the welfare state. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era.Anatolian region
Main articles: Islam in Turkey and Secularism in Turkey
Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by Atatürk's Reforms.
Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied
support from the population for the Independence War against the
occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from
the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of
secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as
1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against
domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong
appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority
of the population, at least nominally, adheres to Islam in Turkey, the state, which was established with the Kemalist ideology has no official religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests
were a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took
place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the
possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the Turkish secularist state.See also
- Early scholars of Islam
- History of the Balkans
- Islam by country - a list
- List of the Muslim Empires
- List of dynasties of Muslim Rulers
- Pre-Islamic Arabia
Notes
- Jump up ^ Milestones of Islamic History
- Jump up ^ Khaddūrī 2002, pp. 19–20
- Jump up ^ Mecca: a literary history of the Muslim Holy Land By Francis E. Peters
- Jump up ^ Umar bin Al Khattab - The Second Caliph of Islam By Abdul Basit Ahmad Page 43 [1]
- Jump up ^ Men Around the Messenger By Khālid Muḥammad Khālid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 20 [2]
- Jump up ^ The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad By Maulana Muhammad Ali Page [3]
- Jump up ^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 [4]
- Jump up ^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus
- Jump up ^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 [5]
- Jump up ^ Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths By Said Öztürk Page 539
- Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 38)
- Jump up ^ Hofmann (2007), p.86
- Jump up ^ Islam: An Illustrated History By Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay Page 40
- Jump up ^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press.
- Jump up ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.
- Jump up ^ Constitution of Medina
- Jump up ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 61 [6]
- Jump up ^ Rahman (1999, p. 40)
- Jump up ^ European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24 [7]
- Jump up ^ History of the Jihad By Leonard Michael Kroll Page 123
- Jump up ^ A History of Byzantium By Timothy E. Gregory page 183
- Jump up ^ Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61 [8]
- Jump up ^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page 11
- Jump up ^ Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series 50 (1): 3.
- Jump up ^ The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors By Abu al-Fazl Izzati, A. Ezzati Page 301
- Jump up ^ Islam For Dummies By Malcolm Clark Page
- Jump up ^ Spiritual Clarity By Jackie Wellman Page 51
- Jump up ^ The Koran For Dummies By Sohaib Sultan Page
- Jump up ^ Qur'an: The Surah Al-Nisa, Ch4:v2
- Jump up ^ Qur'an: Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13]
- Jump up ^ Qur'an: Surat An-Nisa' [4:1]
- Jump up ^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32
- Jump up ^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-?Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A. Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [9]
- Jump up ^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A. Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [10]
- Jump up ^ Men Around the Messenger By Khalid Muhammad Khalid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 117 [11]
- Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Islam:, Volume 2 edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis Page 605 [12]
- Jump up ^ The Early Caliphate By Maulana Muhammad Ali
- Jump up ^ [13]
- Jump up ^ [14]
- Jump up ^ Rahman (1999, p. 37)
- Jump up ^ Rahman (1999, p. 53)
- Jump up ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 232 [15]
- Jump up ^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867
- Jump up ^ Holt (1977a, pp. 67–72)
- Jump up ^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 352
- Jump up ^ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
- Jump up ^ W. Montgomery Watt. Khārijite thought in the Umayyad Period. Der Islam. Volume 36, Issue 3, Pages 215–231, ISSN (Online) 1613-0928, ISSN (Print) 0021-1818, doi:10.1515/islm.1961.36.3.215, //1961
- ^ Jump up to: a b The Encyclopædia Britannica by Hugh Chisholm. Page 28
- Jump up ^ Roberts, J: "History of the World.". Penguin, 1994.
- Jump up ^ Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad and the Islamic tradition. New York: Harper Brothers. Page 183.
- Jump up ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung. Page 340.
- Jump up ^ Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I, Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. Page 543
- Jump up ^ Islam and Politics John L. Esposito - 1998 Page 16
- Jump up ^ Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project By Benjamin Jokisch - 2007 - Page 404
- Jump up ^ The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East Hugh N. Kennedy - 2006 - Page 197
- Jump up ^ A Chronology of Islamic History By H U Rahman Page 106, 129
- Jump up ^ Voyages in World History By Josef W. Meri - Page 248
- Jump up ^ Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 71–83)
- Jump up ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8
- Jump up ^ answering-ansar.org. ch 8.
- Jump up ^ answering-ansar.org. ch 7.
- Jump up ^ Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, By Syed Mohammed Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. Page 484.
- Jump up ^ History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti
- Jump up ^ History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan
- Jump up ^ The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb
- Jump up ^ In the Al Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720-721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah.
- Jump up ^ *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24913-1 p. 3.
- Jump up ^ von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd Ed.
- Jump up ^ Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press, 1998), 660
- ^ Jump up to: a b J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02
- Jump up ^ Lewis 1993, p. 84
- Jump up ^ Holt 1977a, p. 105
- Jump up ^ Holt 1977b, pp. 661–663
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
- Jump up ^ "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600". University of Calagary. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- Jump up ^ "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- Jump up ^ Lapidus 2002, p. 54
- Jump up ^ Nasr 2003, p. 121
- Jump up ^ Khaddūrī 2002, pp. 21–22
- Jump up ^ Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd, Everything you wanted to know about Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica.
- Jump up ^ Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt, Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ).
- Jump up ^ for more, see As-Saffah's_Caliphate
- Jump up ^ An universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time, Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton. Page 319
- Jump up ^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R. Chambers, 1890. Page 567.
- Jump up ^ Johannes P. Schadé (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions.
- Jump up ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992
- Jump up ^ Nasr 2003, pp. 121–122
- Jump up ^ Lapidus 1988, p. 129
- Jump up ^ The Encyclopaedia Britannica. A. and C. Black, 1878. Pg 578+
- Jump up ^ Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.
- Jump up ^ The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.
- Jump up ^ Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".
- Jump up ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991
- Jump up ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. ISBN 0-88706-875-8, ISBN 978-0-88706-875-1
- Jump up ^ Its minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.
- Jump up ^ A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives.
- Jump up ^ Examples of the former include the loss of Mosul in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the Kakūyid dynasty of Isfahān, whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran.
- Jump up ^ Bowen, Harold (1928). The Life and Times of ʿAlí Ibn ʿÍsà: The Good Vizier. Cambridge University Press. p. 385.
- Jump up ^ R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. ISBN 0-521-20093-8
- Jump up ^ Hanne, Eric, J. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780838641132.
- Jump up ^ William Muir. The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall.
- Jump up ^ Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213.
- Jump up ^ William Muir, The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall.
- Jump up ^ ʻIzz al-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr, Donald Sidney Richards, The chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil fī'l-ta'rīkh: The years 491-541/1097-1146 : the coming of the Franks and the Muslim response.
- Jump up ^ Martin Sicker. The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Greenwood Publishing Group, Jan 1, 2000. Pg 75.
- Jump up ^ Jean Richard, The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 1. 1979. Page 36.
- Jump up ^ It is supposed by an emissary of the Hashshashins, who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this matter.
- Jump up ^ William Muir. book The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall, 1924.
- Jump up ^ Grigor of Akanc-The history of the nation of archers, (tr. R.P.Blake) 303
- Jump up ^ Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p.210
- Jump up ^ Thomas T. Allsen-Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.84
- Jump up ^ Bernard Lewis. The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press, Jun 11, 1991.
- Jump up ^ Ann K. S. Lambton. State and Government in Medieval Islam. Psychology Press, 1981 Pg 138.
- Jump up ^ Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr. A Concise History of the Middle East.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 [16]
- ^ Jump up to: a b The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts Page 917 [17]
- ^ Jump up to: a b The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 [18]
- Jump up ^ "Mahdia: Historical Background". Commune-mahdia.gov.tn.
- Jump up ^ Beeson, Irene (September/October 1969). "Cairo, a Millennial". Saudi Aramco World: 24, 26–30. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
- Jump up ^ Firestone, R. (2008). An introduction to Islam for Jews. Philadelphia: JPS/Jewish Publication Society. Page 66
- Jump up ^ Lane, J.-E., Redissi, H., & Ṣaydāwī, R. (2009). Religion and politics: Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub. Company. Page 83
- Jump up ^ Cairo_of_the_mind, oldroads.org
- Jump up ^ John Bagnell Bury. The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 2. Macmillan, 1913. Pg 379.
- Jump up ^ al-Qaim bi-Amrillah. archive.mumineen.org
- Jump up ^ Collins 2004, p. 139
- Jump up ^ Hourani 2003, p. 41
- Jump up ^ Glubb, John Bagot (1966). The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors. Prentice-Hall. p. 128.
- Jump up ^ Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. BRILL. p. 102. ISBN 90-04-14771-3.
- Jump up ^ Luscombe, David Edward; Jonathan Riley-Smith (2004). The new Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge University Press. p. 599. ISBN 0-521-41410-5.
- Jump up ^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-8014-9264-5.
- Jump up ^ Constable, Olivia Remie (1997). "The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler". Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-8122-1569-9.
- Jump up ^ This was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of caliph.
- Jump up ^ Michael Hamilton Morgan. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists . National Geographic Books, 2008.
- Jump up ^ The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Volumes 15-16. C. Knight, 1839. Pg 385
- Jump up ^ Near the end of his life, it is said, though, that Abd al-Rahman became increasingly paranoid and sequestered himself in his palaces.
- Jump up ^ P. M. Holt, Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis. The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press, Apr 21, 1977. Pg 411
- Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Jump up ^ Fierro, Maribel (2005). Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-384-4.
- Jump up ^ Ibn Idhari (1860) [Composed c. 1312]. Al-Bayan al-Mughrib [Historias de Al-Andalus] (in Spanish). Volume 1. trans. Francisco Fernández y González. Granada: Francisco Ventura y Sabatel. OCLC 557028856.
- Jump up ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (1894). The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions. Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company. OCLC 1199708.
- Jump up ^ Abd_ar-Rahman_III Assumption_of_the_Caliphate
- Jump up ^ Henry Hallam. View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages, Volume 1. W. J. Widdleton, 1870. Pg 49.
- Jump up ^ The Literary Era: A Monthly Repository of Literary and Miscellaneous Information, Volume 5. Porter & Coates, 1898. Pg 133.
- Jump up ^ Sylvia Schein. Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Catholic West (1099-1187). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Jan 1, 2005. Pg 19.
- Jump up ^ Peter Lock. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge, Apr 15, 2013. Pg 180
- Jump up ^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate) http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html
- Jump up ^ Tschanz, David W. (July/August 2007). "History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut". Saudi Aramco World.
- Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680
- Jump up ^ The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Abū al-Faz̤l ʻIzzatī, A. Ezzati, pg. 274
- Jump up ^ Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravilʹ Bukharaev, pg. 145
- Jump up ^ Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 — This online copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
- Jump up ^ Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press.
- Jump up ^ Hourani 2003, p. 85
- Jump up ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Brill, Leiden.
- Jump up ^ For more, see Mamluk architecture.
- ^ Jump up to: a b A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress
- Jump up ^ Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Heritage.com)
- Jump up ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world. Brill. 2007. p. 264
- Jump up ^ Y. Benhima, "The Idrisids (789- 974)". qantara-med.org, 2008.
- Jump up ^
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Almoravides". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press
- Jump up ^ History of the Almonades, Reinhart Dozy, Second edition, 1881.
- Jump up ^ Nicolini, B., & Watson, P.-J. (2004). Makran, Oman, and Zanzibar: Three-terminal cultural corridor in the western Indian Ocean, 1799-1856. Leiden: Brill. Page 35
- Jump up ^ Nimtz, Jr., August H. (1980). Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Jump up ^ "World’s second oldest mosque is in India". Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original on 2006-07-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- Jump up ^ Srivastava, Ashirvadi Lal (1929). The Sultanate Of Delhi 711-1526 A D. Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company.
- Jump up ^ Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398- A.D. 1707. New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
- Jump up ^ Khamouch, Mohammed. "Jewel of Chinese Muslim’s Heritage". FTSC.
- Jump up ^ Gustave Le Bon. 1956. Hadarat al Arab. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arabes. 3rd Print. Cairo. P.95.
- Jump up ^ Suryanegara, Ahmad Mansyur.2009. API Sejarah. 1st Printed. Bandung. Indonesia. P. 2 - 3
- Jump up ^ Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guilaume, (Editor), 1965. The Legacy of Islam. Oxford University Press, New York, P.87.
- Jump up ^ Nasr 2003, p. 143
- Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker, The encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars: a political, social, and military history, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2009, page 419
- Jump up ^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 226–230
- ^ Jump up to: a b Armstrong 2000, p. 116
- Jump up ^ For more, see Forms of vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 211–219
- Jump up ^ Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321
- Jump up ^ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
- Jump up ^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 199–204
- Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 146)
- Jump up ^ Holt 1977a, p. 263
- Jump up ^ Kohn, G. C. (2006). Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. Page 94.
- Jump up ^ Koprulu 1992, p. 109
- Jump up ^ Koprulu 1992, p. 111
- Jump up ^ www.muslimdecline.blogspot.com
- Jump up ^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 961, 969
- Jump up ^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 971–972
- Jump up ^ McNeill, Bentley & Christian 2005, p. 1402
- Jump up ^ East Bengal — a part of the newly created Pakistan — later becomes independent.
- Jump up ^ Cyrus Ghani, Sīrūs Ġanī. Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris, Jan 6, 2001.
- Jump up ^ Farrokh, Kaveh. Iran at War: 1500–1988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781780962214.
- Jump up ^ Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal). Volume 7, No. 4 - December 2003
- Jump up ^ Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion (Israel Science and Technology)
- Jump up ^ Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st Century
- Jump up ^ The Three Circles of War: Understanding the Dynamics of Conflict in Iraq By Heather S. Gregg Page 66 [19]
- Jump up ^ After Khomeini:Iran Under His Successors By Said Amir Arjomand Page 195 [20]
- Jump up ^ Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 [21]
- Jump up ^ Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar
- Jump up ^ Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196 [22]
- Jump up ^ Islam and Politics By John L. Esposito
References and further reading
Books, articles, and journals- Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-679-64040-0.
- Bloom; Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power.
- Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
- Hart, Michael (1978). The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history. New York: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1057-9.
- Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4.
- Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.
- Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
- Khaddūrī, Majīd (2002). The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar. JHU Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0-8018-6975-7, 9780801869754 Check
|isbn=value (help). - Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0819-1.
- Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic societes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77056-4.
- Lewis, B. (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2.
- Rahman, F. (1982). Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70284-7.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam:Religion, History and Civilization. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-050714-4.
- Sonn, Tamara (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-0900-9.
- Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INUPress. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
- Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21591-2.
- al-Balādhurī, A. Y.; Hitti, P. K. (1916). The origins of the Islamic state: Being a translation from the Arabic accompanied with annotations, geographic and historic notes of the Kitâbfutûḥ al-buldân of al-Imâm abu l'Abbâs Aḥmad ibn-Jâbir al-Balâdhuri. New York.
- Williams, H. S., ed. (1904). The historians' history of the world: Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs. The crusades and the papacy. New York: The Outlook Company.
- Le, S. G. (1900). Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate: From contemporary Arabic and Persian sources. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2006). Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Zaydān, J.; Margoliouth, D. S. (1907). "Being the fourth part of Jurjí Zaydán's history of Islamic civilization.". Umayyads and ʻAbbásids. Leyden: E.J. Brill, imprimerie orientale.
- "Islam Aflame with Revolt". The World's work. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 1900.
- Smith, Elder (1877). The life of Mahomet: from original sources.
- Irving, W. (1868). Mahomet and his successors. New York: Putnam.
- Sale, G.; Psalmanazar, G.; Bower, A.; Shelvocke, G.; Campbell, J.; Swinton, J. (779). A universal history: From the earliest accounts to the present time. 21. London: C. Bathurst.
- *Brill Archive (ed.). A history of muslim historiography.
- P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
- Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 4. Berkshire Publishing Group. 2005. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
- The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
- Baynes, T. S. (1888). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A dictionary of arts, sciences, and general literature. New York, N.Y: H.G. Allen. Page 545 - 606.
- In Pace, E. A. (1922). The Catholic encyclopedia: An international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, discipline and history of the Catholic Church. New York: Encyclopedia Press. "Mohammed and Mohammedanism.". Pg. 424–428
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