History of Islam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The
history of Islam concerns the
Islamic religion and its adherents, known as
Muslims. "Muslim" is an
Arabic word meaning "one who submits to
God". Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted the
political,
economic, and
military history of the
Old World, especially the
Middle East, where lie its roots. Though it is believed by
non-Muslims to have originated in
Mecca and
Medina, Muslims believe that the religion of Islam has been present since the time of the prophet
Adam. The
Islamic world expanded to include people of the Islamic civilization, inclusive of non-Muslims living in that civilization.
A century after the death of last
Islamic prophet Muhammad, the
Islamic empire extended from
Spain in the west to
Indus in the east. The subsequent empires such as those of the
Abbasids,
Fatimids,
Almoravids,
Seljukids,
Ajuuraan,
Adal and
Warsangali in
Somalia,
Mughals in India and
Safavids in
Persia and
Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The
Islamic civilization
gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable
scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and
philosophers during the
Golden Age of Islam.
Technology flourished; there was investment in economic infrastructure,
such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of reading
the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the
general populace.
In the later Middle Ages, destructive
Mongol invasions from the East, and the loss of population in the
Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the
Ottoman Empire was able to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic
world power again, although one that was unable to master the challenges of the
Early Modern period.
Later, in
modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell under the influence of European
Great powers. After the
First World War, Ottoman territories (a
Central Powers member) were
partitioned into several nations under the terms of the
Treaty of Sèvres.
Although affected by ideologies such as
socialism and
secularism during much of the 20th century, the
Islamic identity and the dominance of
Islam on political issues intensified during the
early 21st century. Global interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and
globalization changed the type of Islamic influence on the contemporary world.
[1] In the contemporary period, a set of ideologies holding interpretations of Islamic texts that advocate the
unification of religion and state has spread, but the
ideology has been criticized.
Major periods
The
Islamic state and
Muslim's system of government evolved through various stages.
[2] The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrary. The
City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The
Imperial period lasted from 630s to 750s. The
Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These correspond to the
early period of post-classical history. The
"Decentralization" period lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the
high period and
late period of post-classical history. The
"Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s to the late 1910s. The
contemporary period, referred to as the
National period, lasted from 1910s into the twenty-first century.
-
-
- Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details.
-
-
Islamic origins
In
pre-Islamic Arabia, Arab people lived on the
Arabian Plate. In the south of
Hedjaz (principal religious and commercial centre of post-classical Arabia),
the Arabic tribe of
Quraysh (
Adnani Arabs), to which
Muhammad belonged, had been in existence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the guardians of the
Kaaba within the town of
Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecca upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important
pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the
Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,
[3] a branch of the
Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from
Khuzaimah and derived its inheritance from the
Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a).
Muhammad Kaaban
Nakkaş Osman, Istanbul (1595)
(Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards)
According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with
revelations to Muhammad (when he was 40 years old) in 610. The
history of the Qur'an began when its verses were revealed to the
Sahabah during Muhammad's life. The rise of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in the
Hijra, moving to Medina. With Islam,
blood feuds among the Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood and only the culprit was executed.
In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the
Treaty of Hudaybiyya
beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and
their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tribe of 'Khuza'ah',
who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered
Mecca. Muhammad died in June 632. The
Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same year, between the forces of the first
caliph Abu Bakr and
Musailima.
City-states and Imperial period
After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State:
Abu Bakr (632-634),
Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar І, 634-644),
Uthman ibn Affan, (644-656), and
Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "
Rashidun" or "rightly guided" Caliphs in
Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the
Muslim conquests, advancing through
Persia,
Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa.
Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrigation networks. To be close to the poor,
Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor,
Umar established the first welfare state
Bayt al-mal.
[4][5][6] The
Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The
Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the
Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the
Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era.
Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.
[7][8][9][10] The expansion of the state, was partially terminated between 638–639 during the years of great famine and plague in Arabia and
Levant respectively. During
Umars reign, within 10 years
Levant,
Egypt,
Cyrenaica,
Tripolitania,
Fezzan, Eastern
Anatolia, almost the whole of
Sassanid Persian Empire including
Bactria,
Persia,
Azerbaijan,
Armenia,
Caucasus and
Makran were incorporated into Islamic State. When Umar was assassinated in 644,
the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The Qur'an was
standardized during this time.
Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily to finance the
Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.
[11][12]
As new areas joining the Islamic State, they also benefited from free
trade, while trading with other areas in the Islamic State, so as to
encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed.
[13] The Muslims paid
Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the
Constitution of Medina, was drafted by the
Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges.
[14][15][16]
Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their
property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine
and the Persian tax collection systems were maintained and the people
paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the
Persians.
In 639,
Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous governor
Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people.
[17][18] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the
Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649
Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by
Monophysitise Christians,
Copts and
Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the
Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.
[19][20][21][22][23]
When Umar was assassinated in 644,
Uthman Ibn Affan
became the next caliph. As it is well known that Arabic language is
written without vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers,
people began having different dielects and phonics which was changing
the exact meaning of verses in the Qur'an. This was brought to the
notice of
Uthman Ibn Affan. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the
compilation of the Qur'an
was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sent copies to the
different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on,
thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.
[24]
The Qur'an and
Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the
The Farewell Sermon.
[25][26][27][28][29][30][31]
Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after
Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences between the Arabs started
to resurface. Following the
Roman–Persian Wars and the
Byzantine–Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian
Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the
Byzantine Empire also existed. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area.
[32] Previously, the second caliph
Umar
was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on the
governors. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming
attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative
standards, he had him removed from his position.
[33]
Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because
Umar
feared that they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the
process, they may get away from the worship of God and become attracted
to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.
[34][35][36][37]
"Wealth and children are [but] adornment of the worldly life. But the
enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for
[one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46
[38]
"O you who have believed, let not your wealth and your children divert
you from remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that - then those are
the losers." Qur'an 63:9
[39]
Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that
there was no stress on the population and also that the populations
remained autonomous and kept their own judges and representatives. Some
of these encampments later grew into cities themselves, like
Basra and
Kufa in Iraq and
Fustat in Egypt.
[40] Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the
Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.
As
Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old,
Marwan I a relative of
Muawiyah I slipped into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and relaxed some of these restrictions.
Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. In 656,
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of
Abu Bakr and the adopted son of
Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of
Ja'far al-Sadiq showed some Egyptians, the house of
Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing
Uthman ibn al-Affan.
[41] Ali then assumed the position of caliph and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq.
Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of
Uthman ibn al-Affan and
Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested.
Marwan I manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the
first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by
Kharijites
in 661. Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn
Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fifth
Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treaty with
Muawiyah I. In the
Hasan-Muawiya treaty,
Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be
just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he
does not establish a dynasty.
[42][43] This brought to an end the era of the
Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this,
Mu'awiyah broke the conditions of the agreement and began the
Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in
Damascus.
[44] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "
Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,
[45] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of
Marwan I who was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the
Maghrib, the
Iberian Peninsula,
Narbonnese Gaul and
Sindh.
[46]
After the peace treaty with Ali's son,
Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of the revolt of the
Kharijites,
[47] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.
[48] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the death of their chief.
[48] In 664, Muawiyah and
Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agreement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at
Basra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son
Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680.
Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was killed in the
Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims on the
Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the
Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was extended under Muawiyah to
Rhodes,
Crete,
Kabul,
Bukhara, and
Samarkand, and expanded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered
Kabul,
[49] and in 665 pushed into the
Maghreb.
[50]
- Succession and Umayyad accession
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
The
Umayyad dynasty (or
Ommiads), whose name derives from
Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Although the Umayyad family came from the city of
Mecca,
Damascus was the capital. After the death of
Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,
[51][52] Muawiyah I consolidated his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from
Medina,
which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a
later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad
marked the accession of a new family to power.
As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the
Bayt al-mal
and the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim
poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the
Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll
tax. The Umayyad rule, with its wealth and luxury also seemed at odds
with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad.
[53][54][55] All this increased discontent.
[56][57] The descendants of Muhammad's uncle
Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented
mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general
Abu Muslim, inaugurating the
Abbasid dynasty in 750, which moved the capital to
Baghdad.
[58] A branch of the
Ummayad family fled across
North Africa to Al-Andalus, where they established the
Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the
Fitna of al-Ándalus. The
Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the
Abbasids.
At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 km
2) making it one of the
largest empires the world had yet seen,
[59] and the fifth
largest contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the
Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to
Al-Andalus, where they established the
Caliphate of Córdoba, which lasted until 1031 with the
Fitna of al-Ándalus.
The
Mosque of Uqba
(Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uqba Ibn
Nafi in 670 AD, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim
West; its present form dates from the 9th century,
Kairouan,
Tunisia.
Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of
Constantinople. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinople at one point, though the
Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold any territory in
Anatolia.
Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Muslim nation from post-
civil war anarchy. However,
Shia Muslims accuse him of instigating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the
Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing
heresies[60] slandering
the Prophet's family
[61] and even selling his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.
[62]
One of Muawiyah's most controversial and enduring legacies was his
decision to designate his son Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a
doctrine, this was a clear violation of the treaty he made with Hasan
ibn Ali.
In 682 AD Yazid restored
Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the
Berbers and
Byzantines.
[63] From there Uqba marched thousands of miles westward towards
Tangier, where he reached the
Atlantic coast, and then marched eastwards through the
Atlas Mountains.
[64] With about 300
cavalrymen,
he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force
under Kaisala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked
and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.
[65] Weakened by the civil wars the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of
Rhodes and
Crete. Under the rule of
Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if
Hussein ibn Ali
the descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more
just. He was invited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Later
this concept was taken one step further and they started thinking, what
if history took a different course and Ali was the first caliph and
these ideas were later adopted by some Shia and institutionalised by the
Safavids.
The period under
Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (
Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign of
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan,
a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems
that impeded his rule, all important records were translated into
Arabic. In his reign, a
currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under
Justinian II (
Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in
Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of
Slavs.
The Islamic currency was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim
world. He reformed agriculture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated
Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and
organized a regular
postal service.
Al-Walid I
began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islamic
empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from
the Byzantine Empire and moved on into
Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under
Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the
Strait of Gibraltar and began to conquer
Spain using North African
Berber armies. The
Visigoths of Spain were defeated when the Umayyad conquered
Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Islamic control of Europe (they were stopped at the
Battle of Tours). In the east, Islamic armies under
Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the
Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India.
Al-Hajjaj bin Yousef
played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military
commanders. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an
organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad era.,
This tactic was crucial for the expansion to Spain. His reign is
considered to be the apex of Islamic power.
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appointed
Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of
Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest and execution of the family of
al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other was
Qutaibah bin Muslim)
who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazid, rather than
Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no threat.
Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected
his appeal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman.
Sulayman did not move to
Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in
Ramla. Sulayman sent
Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (
siege of Constantinople). The intervention of
Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sustained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717.
Yazid II
came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites,
with whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader
Shawdhab. In Yazid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the
empire.
[66] Yazid expanded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother,
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik
ruled an empire with many problems. He was effective in addressing
these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an
entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms
introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids against the
Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with
local restlessness to produce a significant
Berber revolt. He was also faced with a revolt by
Zayd bin Ali.
Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continued to gain power in
Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to make a move
yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The
Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campaign of the Umayyad dynasty.
[67] Hisham died in 743.
Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign.
Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the
Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and
non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human
free will).
[68] Walid was shortly thereafter deposed in a
coup.
[69]
Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He
explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the
Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while various groups refused
allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he died.
Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated.
Marwan II
ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad
ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan named his two sons Ubaydallah and
Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserted his authority by
force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and
Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph was
almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together.
His death signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was
followed by the massacre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire
Umayyad dynasty was killed, except for the talented prince
Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a dynasty there.
Universal period and decentralization
Islamic Golden Age
The
Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially, they conquered
Mediterranean islands including the
Balearics and
Sicily.
[70] The
ruling party had come to power on the wave of dissatisfaction with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary
Abu Muslim.
[71][72] Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the development of Arabic
prose and
poetry, termed by
The Cambridge History of Islam as its "
golden age".
[73] Commerce and industry (considered a
Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the
arts and sciences (considered a
Muslim Scientific Revolution) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs
al-Mansur (ruled 754 — 775),
Harun al-Rashid (ruled 786 — 809),
al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 — 813) and their immediate successors.
[74]
| Islamic States |
| Universal Golden period |
Eastern hemisphere's States and Empires (820)
|
| Decentralized territory |
Regions are approximate, consult particular article for details.
|
The capital was moved from Damascus to
Baghdad, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in
Persia and
Transoxania.
[74]
At this time the caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of
regional dynasties. Although the Umayyad family had been killed by the
revolting Abbasids, one family member,
Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate there in 756. In the
Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab
Aghlabids
as virtually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise
central authority. Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed
by the
Shiite Fatimid dynasty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "
al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", known today as
Cairo). In Persia the
Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbasids.
[75][76] Abbasid influence had been consumed by the
Great Seljuq Empire (a Muslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.
[74]
Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful
proselytising.
[70] The first stage in the
conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By some 200 (from 1193 — 1209) years later, the area up to the
Ganges river had fallen. In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Muslim rulers were in
Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with reports of a Muslim prince at the head of
Gao as early as 1009. The
Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.
[77]
The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity.
Different sects of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine,
history, and practice, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also
distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads'
moral character and administration. According to
Ira Lapidus,
"The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly the
aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and
their
Mawali".
[78] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as
mawali, who remained outside the
kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic
ecumenism, promoted by the Abbasids, refers to the idea of unity of the
Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the
Shariah was codified, and the four
Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical
Sufism. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of
Hadith of
Sahih Bukhari and others.
[79] Islam recognized to a certain extent the validity of the
Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying
Jews,
Christians,
Zoroastrians, and "
Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the
Mandeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "
people of the book". Toward the beginning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the
Sunni and
Shia, two major
denominations of Islam, solidified and the
divisions of the world theologically would form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods.
Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic
monarchy (
unitary system of government.) The regional
Sultanate and
Emirate governors' existence, validity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.
[80] In the
early Islamic philosophy of the
Iberian Umayyads,
Averroes presented an argument in
The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official
Ash'ari theology; thus,
Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern
secularism.
[81][82]
Golden Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
According to Arab sources in the year 750,
Al-Saffah,
the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion
against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas.
After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the
Battle of the Zab,
Al-Saffah and his forces marched into Damascus and founded a new
dynasty. His forces confronted many regional powers and consolidated the
realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.
[83]
In
Al-Mansur's
time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Islam.
The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the
collection of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled
within its territory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of
Al-Mansur's reign.
Al-Mahdi,
whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph
when his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's
reign, becoming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from
Arabia, Iraq, Syria, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad
was home to Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to
the growing Muslim population. Like his father,
Al-Hadi[84]
was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the
palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and
continued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was
plagued by military conflicts and internal intrigue.
An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era.
The military conflicts subsided as
Harun al-Rashid ruled.
[85] His reign was marked by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library
Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The
Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.
[86]
According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca,
Al-Amin received the Caliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. General
Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled and
besieged Baghdad.
Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer.
When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-Amin sought to negotiate safe
passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his
sceptre,
seal
and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to leave on a boat
and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boat and
Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was
captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.
[87]
Regional powers
The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among
Coptic Arabs,
Indo-Persians, and immigrant Turks.
[88] In addition, the cost of running a large empire became too great.
[89]
The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the
Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the
princes in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to
disintegrate. Under the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent
dynasties appeared in the Muslim world and the caliphs recognized such
dynasties as legitimately Muslim. The first was the
Tahirid dynasty in
Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph
Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the
Saffarids,
Samanids,
Ghaznavids and
Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.
[90]
High Baghdad Abbasids
Early Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Upon Al-Amin's death,
Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.
[91]
Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his
ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military
services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became
entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating
Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The
rising power of the
Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.
Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession.
Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against
heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious
scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the
Mihna, the
Abbasid inquisition which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.
[92] The
Ulama emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The
Ulema
and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of
Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws.
Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more
pronounced.
During the Al-Ma'mun regime,
border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in
Sardis.
Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he
treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine
Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them
translated into Arabic.
[93] His scientists originated
alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the
Great Pyramid of
Giza
to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunneled in near where
tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near
Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his
half-brother,
Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.
As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of
al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of
the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising
of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a
significant victory.
Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the
Battle of Anzen.
On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which
forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and
ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the
Mamluk
system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they
slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of
al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated
the rebels.
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in
power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight
functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the
east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He
continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect,
applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician
Al-Kindi
was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had
served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek
geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.
[94]
Al-Wathiq
succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria,
Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the
execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an
increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies.
The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew,
as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with
the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists.
He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over
one hundred songs.
[95]
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever,
Al-Mutawakkil
succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and
is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after
his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna.
Al-Mutawakkil built the
Great Mosque of Samarra[96] as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian
Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by
Emperor Michael III.
Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in
his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in
the destruction of the
shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī,
an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages.
Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers
to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably
capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by
a Turkish soldier.
Al-Muntasir
succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the
Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish
party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession,
fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote
statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban
on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid
the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs
held a council to select his successor, electing
Al-Musta'in.
The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice
and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian
choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim
campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing
disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks
besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to
Al-Mu'tazz
but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the
Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power.
High Abbasids
Jurisprudence |
|
Four constructions of Islamite law
|
Early Abbasids
Literature and Science |
- Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator;
- Ibn Fadlan, explorer;
- Al Battani, astronomer;
- Tabari, historian and theologian;
- Al-Razi, philosopher, medic, chemist;
- Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher;
- Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician;
- Alhazen, mathematician;
- Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist;
- Omar Khayyám, poet, mathematician, and astronomer;
- Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher
|
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At
Samarra, the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and
Moors),
while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in,
regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers
Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing
a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was
brutally deposed shortly thereafter.
Al-Muhtadi
became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the
earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him
soon after his ascension.
Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the
Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned
al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The
Hamdanid dynasty was founded by
Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was appointed governor of
Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son,
al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The
Tulunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.
Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to
allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant
towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just.
Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not
surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite
leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of
which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon
Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl,
Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne.
Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and
for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad.
During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the
Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose
Al-Muqtadir.
Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one
rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought
the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul
threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended
border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate,
including those who virtually claimed independence.
At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress
Zoe Karbonopsina pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner
[97]
while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only
added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir
was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually
slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother
al-Qahir. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.
His son
Ar-Radi
took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his
piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister,
Ibn Raik (
amir al-umara;
'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his
name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period,
the
Hanbalis,
supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni
inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real
Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold
assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of
the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute
alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.
In the late mid-930s, the
Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor (
Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid)
was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants
the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for
"prince".
Also in the 930s,
‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers,
al-Hassan and
Aḥmad founded the
Būyid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the
Ziyārīds of
Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from
Baghdad named
Yāqūt
in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of
the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of
the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains.
Fars and
Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took
Kermān (967),
Oman (967), the
Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and
Gorgan
(981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the
confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their
rule becoming
de facto independent.
[98]
Middle Baghdad Abbasids
Early High Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Mediterrean Region
and the States of the Crusades |
Regional States, ca. 1180.
|
At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of little importance. The
amir al-umara Bajkam
contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble
local dignitaries to elect a successor. The choice fell on
Al-Muttaqi.
Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing
anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mosul
where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik.
Hamdanid
Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks repelled them. Turkish general
Tuzun became
amir al-umara.
The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in
danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to
Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalemated. Al-Muttaqi was at
Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun installed the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of
Al-Mustakfi. With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the
Buwayhid dynasty and the
Hamdanids.
Soon after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu
Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into
hiding with the Caliph. Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command
forcing the Caliph into abject submission to the Amir. Eventually,
Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the
Caliph's palace was looted.
[99]
| Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims |
|
|
Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad,
Al-Muti
became caliph. The office was shorn of real power and Shi'a observances
were established. The Buwayhids held on Baghdad for over a century.
Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at its lowest ebb, but
was recognized religiously, except in
Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan
Mu'izz al-Dawla
was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his
own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.
[100]
The next Caliph,
Al-Ta'i,
reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatimids, Turks, and
Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid borders
were the defended only by small border states.
Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed
al-Qadir the new caliph.
[101]
During al-Qadir's Caliphate,
Mahmud of Ghazni
looked after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame,
was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his victories in the Indian Empire
were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Baghdad in grateful and
glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shiʿism and
outlawed heresies such as the
Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine that the Qu'ran was created. He outlawed the
Muʿtazila, bringing an end to the development of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period,
Islamic literature, especially
Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.
[102]
By 1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of
the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent.
During
Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Seljuq dynasty gained power.
Toghrül overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way into the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In
Bahrain, the Qarmatian state collapsed in
Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids and again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids.
Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan
Malik-Shah I,
during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the
extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was critical of the
Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposing the
last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.
[103]
Late Baghdad Abbasids
Late High Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
| Al-Aqsa Mosque |
-
Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985
-
|
The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the
Crusades to the
Seventh Crusade. The first Caliph was
Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, despite civil strife at home and the
First Crusade in Syria.
Raymond IV of Toulouse attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the
Battle of Manzikert. The global Muslim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100.
Jerusalem
was captured by crusaders who massacred its inhabitants. Preachers
travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing
men to recover the
Al-Aqsa Mosque from the
Franks (European Crusaders). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the
infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.
[104]
Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan
Mahmud II of Great Seljuq was engaged in war in the East. The
Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Dubays ibn Sadaqa
[105] (emir of
Al-Hilla), plundered
Bosra and attacked Baghdad together with a young brother of the sultan,
Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was crushed by a Seljuq army under
Zengi, founder of the
Zengid dynasty.
Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his
nephew Mas'ud and the atabeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East,
stimulated by the Caliph and Dubays, where he was beaten. The Caliph
then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by
Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's
military revival.
[106]
After the siege of Damascus (1134),
[107] Zengi undertook
operations in Syria. Al-Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.
[108] His son,
Al-Rashid
failed to gain independence from Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the
murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanate. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph
and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained
power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of
Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to
Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.
[109]
Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowed
al-Muqtafi to maintain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout
Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi granted protection to the
Nestorian patriarch
Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged, the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the
Siege of Baghdad (1157).
The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal,
but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist
the Crusaders.
The next caliph,
Al-Mustanjid, saw
Saladin extinguish the
Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed.
Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladin become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids.
An-Nasir, "
The Victor for the Religion of God",
attempted to restore the Caliphate to its ancient dominant role. He
consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gulf without interruption. His
forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambitious and corrupt
dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the
Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son,
Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a short period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson,
Al-Mustansir, was made caliph.
Al-Mustansir founded the
Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236
Ögedei Khan commanded to raise up
Khorassan and populated
Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in
Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of
Mosul and
Cilician Armenia surrendered. Chormaqan divided the
Transcaucasia region into three districts based on military hierarchy.
[110] In Georgia, the population were temporarily divided into eight
tumens.
[111] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Persia, excluding
Abbasid Iraq and
Ismaili strongholds, and all of
Afghanistan and
Kashmir.
[112]
Al-Musta'sim
was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposition
to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh
Crusade. To the east, Mongol forces under
Hulagu Khan swept through the
Transoxiana and
Khorasan.
Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mamluk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo.
Cairo Abbasid Caliphs
Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo
Late Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the
Mamluk
sultans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the
Mamluk sultans. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or
succeeded
Al-Musta'in
were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the
only Cairo-based Abbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power.
Al-Mutawakkil III
was the last "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated
the Mamluk Sultanate, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.
[113][114]
Fatimid Empire
The
Fatimids originated in
Ifriqiya (modern-day
Tunisia and eastern
Algeria). The dynasty was founded in 909 by
ʻAbdullāh al-Mahdī Billah, who legitimised his claim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter
Fātima as-Zahra and her husband
ʻAlī ibn-Abī-Tālib, the first
Shīʻa Imām, hence the name
al-Fātimiyyūn "Fatimid".
[115] The Fatamids and the
Zaydis at the time, used the Hanafi jurisprudence, as did most Sunnis.
[116][117][118]
Abdullāh al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central
Maghreb, an area consisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from
Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.
[119]
The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the
Ikhshidid dynasty and founding a capital at
al-Qāhira(
Cairo) in 969.
[120]
The name was a reference to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was
prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo
was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army,
though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in
cities such as
Fustat
until 1169. After Egypt, the Fatimids continued to conquer surrounding
areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Syria and even crossed the
Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy.
Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that
included at its peak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria,
the
Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the
Hejaz.
[121]
Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network
in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and
diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its
Song Dynasty, which determined the economic course of Egypt during the
High Middle Ages.
Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state
offices was based more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches
of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to
government posts as Shiites. Tolerance covered non-Muslims such as
Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on
ability.
[122] There were, however, exceptions to this general attitude of tolerance, notably
Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah.
The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the
Khan el-Khalili area at Bin El-Quasryn street.
[123]
Fatimid caliphs
Early and High Middle Ages
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
- Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above)
During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid
Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also
contested the religious leadership of Syria. At the beginning of the
Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the
ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Caliphate. Owing to the
Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment of the
Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian
Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political
world. Al Mahdi's father, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the
Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain
died soon after the birth of his son, Al Mahdi. A system of government
helped update Al Mahdi on the development which took place in North
Africa.
[124]
Al Mahdi established the first
Imam
of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogic origins dating as far
back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi established his
headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, under
Aghlabid
rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mahdi
was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically
the Kutamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid
residence at Raqqadah, a suburb of
Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had extended his reign to Morocco of the
Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al Mahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire,
Al-Mahdiyyah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad Al-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.
[125]
Berbers and Iberian Umayyads
The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General
Tarik ibn Ziyad,
first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A
raiding party led by Tarik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the
Visigothic kingdom in
Hispania. Crossing the
Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king
Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the
Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander,
Musa bin Nusair
crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims
dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources
present an earlier raid by a certain
Ṭārif in 710 and also, the
Ad Sebastianum recension of the
Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by
Erwig during the reign of
Wamba (672–80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before the decisive battle was fought.
[126]
The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of
Emir by the
Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in
Damascus. After the
Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Muslim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the ruler
Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of
Emir of Córdoba(912-961).
[127] Soon after, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as
Córdoba.
Al-Hakam II
succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar-Rahman
III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern
Iberia,
[128] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the construction of irrigation works.
[129]
Economical development was also encouraged through the widening of
streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliphate is known
as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.
[130]
The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unrest during the rule of
Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.
[131] Al-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called
taifa kingdoms (Arabic,
Muluk al-ṭawā'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate into those
petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula
vis-à-vis the Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the
taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in money to Castille.
[132]
Emirs of Córdoba
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after the popular revolt known as the
Abbasid Revolution.
Rahman I continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into
Egypt. Rahman I was one of several surviving Umayyad family members to
make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Rahman I and Bedr reached
modern day Morocco near
Ceuta.
Next step would be to cross to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could
not have been sure whether he would be welcome. Following the
Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the
Ummah
torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between
the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders –
Obeid Allah ibn Uthman and
Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in
Zaragoza)
to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try
to make himself emir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I
was told to go to al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr
and a small group of followers for Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at
Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of
Málaga.
During his brief time in Málaga, he quickly amassed local support.
News of the prince's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order
to help speed his ascension to power, he took advantage of the feuds and
dissensions. However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out
in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman and his followers were able to
control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalus in a battle at the
Guadalquivir river,
just outside of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah).
Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from the field with parts
of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Córdoba, fighting off a
counterattack,
but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahman I consolidated
power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim
the Muslim caliph, though.
[133] The last step was to have al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, garroted in Córdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a
safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.
[134]
In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph
al-Mansur
had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the
Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The main Abbasid leaders
were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identifying tags
pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and
sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I
quelled repeated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the
great mosque [cordova], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is
moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the
pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged
science and literature in his states. This good king died on the 29th of
September, 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one month.
[135][136]
The exterior of the Mezquita.
Rahman I's successor was his son
Hisham I. Born in Córdoba, he built many
mosques and completed the
Mezquita. He called for a
jihad that resulted in a campaign against the
Kingdom of Asturias and the
County of Toulouse; in this second campaign he was defeated at Orange by
William of Gellone, first cousin to
Charlemagne. His successor
Al-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other sons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in
Aix-la-Chapelle
to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Córdoba was attacked, but was
defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in
Toledo, Saragossa and Mérida.
[137]
Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against
Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repulsed an assault by
Vikings who had disembarked in
Cadiz, conquered
Seville (with the exception of its
citadel) and attacked Córdoba. Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval
arsenal at
Seville to repel future raids. He responded to
William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against
Charles the Bald's nominations.
[138]
Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the
Muladi (ethnic Iberian Muslims) and
Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his son
Mundhir I.
During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military operations
against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions.
At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year
reign, Mundhir I fought against
Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his brother
Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi.
Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat.
His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and
Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while
the rest had been seized by rebel families. The son he had designated as
successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn
executed by Umawi's father, who named as successor
Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.
[139][140][141]
Caliphs at Córdoba
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids
claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid
Caliph of Baghdad.
[142]
Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
- Ifriqiyah, Iberian
Almohad caliphs
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
The Crusades
Main article:
The Crusades
Beginning in the 8th century, the
Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the
Reconquista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095,
Pope Urban II, inspired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the
eastern Roman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the
First Crusade from Western Europe which captured Odessa,
Antioch,
County of Tripoli and Jerusalem.
[143]
In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian
Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller
Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the
Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers in the region. After
Shirkuh
ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, the Crusader
kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquered
most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.
[144]
In the
Third Crusade
armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Crusader
states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The
Christian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually
completed with the
fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the
Fourth Crusade was diverted from the Levant and instead took
Constantinople, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long struggle against the
Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manage to damage Islamic caliphates; according to
William of Malmesbury, preventing them from further expansion into
Christendom[145] and being targets of the Mamluks and the Mongols.
Ayyubid dynasty
The
Ayyubid dynasty was founded by
Saladin
and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan and
conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ruled much of the Middle
East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egypt, Syria,
northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to
the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested
control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually
established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers
attempted to win independence from Egypt and remained divided until
Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over
most of Syria, excluding
Aleppo,
by 1247. In 1250, the dynasty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by
slave regiments. A number of attempts to recover it failed, led by
an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested
control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after.
[146]
Sultans of Egypt
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Sultans and Amirs of Damascus
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Emirs of Aleppo
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
Mongol invasions
After the Crusades the
Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of the
Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world never fully recovered. Under the leadership of
Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The
Mongol invasion of Central Asia
began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation.
The Mongols spread throughout Central Asia and Persia: the Persian city
of
Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.
[147]
With the election of Khan
Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, Baghdad. Mongke's brother,
Hulegu, was made leader of the
Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The
fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had been the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph,
al-Musta'sim,
was captured and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The
cities of Damascus and Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of
Egypt were delayed due to the death of Mongke at around the same time.
The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mongol army, but the invaders were
finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Jerusalem in 1260 at the
pivotal
Battle of Ain Jalut.
[148]
Ultimately, the
Ilkhanate,
Golden Horde, and the
Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.
[149][150][151]
In power in Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest
of the 13th century gradually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid
rulers were replaced by the new Mongol power founded by
Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the
Delhi Sultanate in India and the
Ottoman Turks in
Anatolia. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad,
Damascus,
Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still recovering from the
Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached
Alexandria
in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic
areas. The combination of the plague and the wars left the Middle
Eastern Islamic world in a seriously weakened position. The
Timurid dynasty would found many branches of Islam, including the
Mughals of India.
[152][153]
The Mamluks
In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the
Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and controlled the Islamic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were
Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see
Battle of Ain Jalut)
after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. Thus they united
Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman
empires (1250–1517).
[154]
The Mamluks experienced a continual state of political conflict,
military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the
"Muslim territory" (
Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (
Dar al-Harb).
[155]
As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the
Mamluks sponsored many religious buildings, including mosques,
madrasas and
khanqahs.
Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of
these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo have
survived to this day, particularly in Old Cairo.
[156]
Bahri Sultans
Main article:
Bahri dynasty
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince,
Aybak (known as
Lion of Ain Jaloot) replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, married
Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph
al-Salih Ayyub.
Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a
key role in the confrontations with the Mongol forces. After Aybak's
assassination and the accession of
Qutuz in 1259, the Mamluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the
Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260. The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the
Battle of Hims a few months later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.
[76] With this, the Mamluks were able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader territories in the Levant.
Burji Sultans
Main article:
Burji dynasty
Eastern Mediterranean 1450
-
-
- Consult particular article for details
- See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era
The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the
world total as against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400.
Africa
The
Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim military expansion following the death of
Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlled
Mesopotamia, had invaded
Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of
Byzantine Syria.
Damascus was the seat of the
Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 all of
Egypt was in Arab hands.
Horn of Africa
The history of Islam in the
Horn of Africa
is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and
social interactions with their converted Muslim trading partners on the
other side of the
Red Sea, in the
Arabian peninsula, merchants and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.
[157]
Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of
Zeila in modern-day northern
Somalia to seek protection from the
Quraysh at the court of the
Aksumite Emperor
in present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted
protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn
region to promote the religion. The victory of the Muslims over the
Quraysh in the 7th century had a significant impact on local merchants
and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia had by then all adopted
Islam, and the major trading routes in the
Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the
Muslim Caliphs.
Instability in the Arabian peninsula saw further migrations of early
Muslim families to the Somali seaboard. These clans came to serve as
catalysts, forwarding the faith to large parts of the Horn region.
[157]
Maghreb
The
Great Mosque of Kairouan
also known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab
general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the
Maghreb, situated in the city of
Kairouan,
Tunisia.
Kairouan in
Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the
Maghreb. Arab general
Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the
Great Mosque of Kairouan[158] considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.
[159]
This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Islamic history. The
Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western
Maghreb (Morocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first
sultan Idris I.
[160]
The
Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the
Sahara flourished over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the
Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century. Under this dynasty the
Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, Western Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar,
Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now
Senegal and
Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.
[161]
The
Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power which founded the fifth
Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Northern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.
[162]
Great Lakes
Islam came to the
Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trade routes.
[163] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs.
Local Islamic governments centered in
Tanzania (then
Zanzibar). The people of
Zayd
were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the
pre-colonial period, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up
through the
Ulema (
wanawyuonis, in
Swahili language).
These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in
South East Africa before territorial boundaries were established. The
chief
Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious authority.
[164]
West Africa
Much later,
Usman dan Fodio after the
Fulani War, found himself in command of the largest state in Africa, the
Fulani Empire.
Dan Fodio worked to establish an efficient government grounded in
Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of the war, he retired in
1815 passing the title of
Sultan of Sokoto to his son
Muhammed Bello.
Asia and the Far East
Main article:
Islam in Asia
South Asia
On the
Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's
Kerala state. Arabs traded with
Malabar even before the birth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of
Sahaba, under
Malik Ibn Deenar, arrived on the
Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend,
the first mosque of India was built by
Second Chera King
Cheraman Perumal, who accepted Islam and received the name
Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muhammad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's
Oman. Historical records suggest that the
Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.
[165]
Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when
Muhammad bin Qasim conquered
Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded under
Mahmud and the
Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when the
Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquests in Northern India.
Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered
Delhi in 1206 and began the reign of the
Delhi Sultanates.
[166]
In the 14th century,
Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to
Gujarat,
Rajasthan and
Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across India from the 13th to the 18th century such as the
Qutb Shahi and the
Bahmani, but none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the
Mughal Empire at its peak.
[167]
China
In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha,
Jafar ibn Abu Talib and
Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the
Chittagong–
Kamrup–
Manipur route after sailing from
Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with
Sa'id ibn Zaid,
Qais ibn Sa'd and
Hassan ibn Thabit
to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed
for China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to
lead an embassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.
[168]
Southeast Asia
Islam first reached
Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7th century CE,
[76] particularly via the western part of what is now
Indonesia.
Arab traders from Yeman already had a presence in Asia through trading
and sea travelling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from
Europe and Africa. They traded not only Arabian goods but also from
Africa, India, and so on including ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.
[169]
According to T.W. Arnold in
The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Islamic Calendar, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of
Ceylon. The same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr.Mr. Prajudi in
Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)
[170]
According to the atlas by geographer Al Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian
or Indonesia Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the
Western Imperialist ruled, it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian
Ocean.
[171]
Soon, many
Sufi missionaries translated classical
Sufi literature from Arabic and Persian into
Malay; a tangible product of this is the
Jawi script. Coupled with the composing of original
Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.
[172] By 1292, when
Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The
Sultanate of Malacca was founded on the
Malay Peninsula by
Parameswara, a
Srivijayan Prince.
Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to
Borneo and
Java. By the late 15th century,
Islam had been introduced to the
Philippines via the southern island of
Mindanao.
[173] The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted form this are the present-day
Sultanate of Sulu and
Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islamised kingdoms in the northern
Luzon island, such as the
Kingdom of Maynila and the
Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and
Christianised with the majority of the archipelago by
Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century.
As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual
conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural
and political power in the region. Three main Muslim political powers
emerged. The
Aceh Sultanate was the most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern
Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted
Sufi poets. The second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The
Sultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local
Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.
[174] Although the sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.
[76]
Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general
Afonso de Albuquerque. With Malacca subdued, the
Aceh Sultanate and
Bruneian Empire
established themselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The
Sultanate's territory, although vastly diminished, remains intact to
this day as the modern state of
Brunei Darussalam.
[76]
Fragmentation period
Three Early Modern empires
In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the
Ottoman Empire in the Middle East, the
Balkans and
Northern Africa; the
Safavid Empire in
Greater Iran; and the
Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were made possible by the discovery and exploitation of
gunpowder and more efficient administration.
[175]
By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and by the
early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last
Muslim empire collapsed.
Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the
Ottoman Empire's relationship with its tributary states. In the contemporary
National period, the term referred to non-Muslim governments that had
armistice
or peace agreements with Muslim governments. Today, the actual status
of the non-Muslim country in question may vary from acknowledged
equality to tributary states.
[176]
Mughal Empire
Main article:
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire was a product of various
Central Asian invasions into the
Indian subcontinent. It was founded by the
Timurid prince
Babur in 1526 with the destruction of the
Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in
Agra. Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son,
Humayun, brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the
Afghani Sher Shah,
who administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A
year before his death, however, Humayun managed to recover much of the
lost territories, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, the 13 year
old
Akbar (later known as
Akbar the Great),
in 1556. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred
through both expansion and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir
and Shah Jahan came to power. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas
including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.
[76][177]
The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan,
Bangladesh and
Afghanistan
for several centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed
India to be divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty
was dissolved by the
British Empire after the
Indian rebellion of 1857.
[76][177] It left a lasting legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mughals, include: the
Taj Mahal, the
Red Fort, the
Badshahi Mosque, the
Lahore Fort, the
Shalimar Gardens and the
Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim communities flourished all over India, in
Gujarat,
Bengal and
Hyderabad.
Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout
the region. More than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.
[177]
Safavid Empire
The
Safavid dynasty rose to power in
Tabriz in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran. The Safavids were originally Sufi and Iran was Sunni.
[178] After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the
Battle of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians behind him
Ismail I
made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver
Shia so that he could get them to fight the Sunni Ottomans.
[179]
This resulted in the
Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam.
Zaydis, the largest group amongst the Shia before the
Safavid Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The
Zaydis at that time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them.
Abu Hanifah and
Zayd ibn Ali were also very good friends. The
Zaydis were also forced to convert.
[116][117][118]
The
Safavids dynasty from
Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which established
Twelver Shi'a Islam as the region's
official religion and united its provinces under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the
Persian identity.
Although claiming to be the descendants of
Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were
Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called
Safavi). Their origins go back to
Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah,
a local dignitary from the north. During their rule, the Safavids
recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the
region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours.
In 1524,
Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts.
Carpetmaking became a major industry. The tradition of
Persian miniature
painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to
strict religious observance in middle age, prohibiting the consumption
of alcohol and
hashish and removing
casinos,
taverns and
brothels. Tahmasp's nephew
Ibrahim Mirza
continued to patronize a last flowering of the arts until he was
murdered, after which many artists were recruited by the Mughal dynasty.
Tahmasp's grandson,
Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi'a Imam,
Ali al-Ridha at
Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at
Ardabil. Both shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas moved the capital to
Isfahan,
revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans.
Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construction
of
Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a Friday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m
2).
[180]
The
Safavid Dynasty was toppled in 1722 by the
Hotaki dynasty, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism.
Salafi
In the 18th century a reform and revival movement was initiated led by
Ibn Abd al-Wahhab
in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation
is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those
by the logician
Ibn Taymiyyah and
Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later
innovations. Their zeal against
idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of Muhammad's Companions.
[181]
Ottoman Empire
Main article:
Ottoman Empire
The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the
Mongol invasion.
[182] This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish principalities, known as
beyliks.
Osman I, the founder of the
Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (
Söğüt) in 1281, succeeding his father
Ertuğrul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.
[183] By 1331, the Ottomans had captured
Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman's son and successor,
Orhan I.
[184] Victory at the
Battle of Kosovo against the
Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were established in the
Balkans and Anatolia by the time
Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.
[185]
Growth halted when Mongol warlord
Timur (also known as "
Tamerlane") captured Bayezid I in the
Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the
Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayezid I's sons, who submitted to
Timurid
authority. When a number of Ottoman territories regained independent
status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empire recovered, as
the youngest son of Bayezid I,
Mehmed I, waged offensive campaigns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting
Asia Minor and declaring himself sultan in 1413.
[76]
Around this time the Ottoman
naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge
Venice, a
naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. By the time of Mehmed I's grandson,
Mehmed II (ruled 1444 — 1446; 1451 — 1481), the Ottomans could lay siege to
Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of
muskets and large
cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress
succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Mehmed II renamed it
Istanbul. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.
[76] The future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the exploitation of
gunpowder.
[175]
In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite
Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of
Shah Ismail I, defeating the ruling
Turcoman federation
Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sultan
Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at the
Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt, absorbing their territories in 1517.
Suleiman I (also known as
Suleiman the Magnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focus to the
Uzbeks
on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under
Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial,
rivalling the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following
the
Battle of Mohács in 1526 —
reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Franco-Ottoman alliance with
Francis I of France against
Charles V of the
Roman Empire
10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 — 1566) was the apex of the
Ottoman Empire. The rapid European industrialization thereafter sent it
into a relative decline.
[76][186] It was recognized as a superpower, even at the time of its decline and eventual demise after
World War I.
Modern history
Main article:
Modern history
The
modern age
brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the
Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The
Great Powers globalized economically and
colonized much of the region.
Ottoman Empire partition
By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to back
Germany in
World War I meant they shared the
Central Powers'
defeat in that war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by
Turkish nationalists led by the victorious general of the
Battle of Gallipoli:
Mustafa Kemal, who became known to his people as Atatürk, "Father of the Turks." Atatürk was credited with renegotiating the
treaty of Sèvres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern
Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by the
Allies in the
Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Atatürk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and
secularization. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted
Hindu-
Arabic numerals, the
Latin script,
separated the religious establishment from the state, and emancipated
woman—even giving them the right to vote in parallel with
women's suffrage in the west.
[187]
Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory
outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers
as
protectorates.
During the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence
in exchange for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their
dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a
smoke-screen for their continued subjugation by the British and the
French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and
the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in
the stories of British secret intelligence agent
T. E. Lawrence—later known as "Lawrence of Arabia."
[188] Ottoman successor states include today's
Albania,
Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon,
Romania,
Saudi Arabia,
Serbia,
Syria,
Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the
Black Sea.
[189]
Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and
nationalism
began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and
Turkey organized their governments sought to develop national pride
amongst their citizens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful
due to a lack of unity and an inability to resolve age-old prejudices
between Muslim sects and against non-Muslims.
Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate
Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia,
the government brought out religious expression in the re-emergence of
the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as
Wahabism, which found its way into the
Saudi royal family.
Indian partition
The
partition of India
refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereign states of
India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former
British Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the area (see
Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of
Bengal and
Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.
[190]
In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest
Islamic country in the world (by population) and the tenth largest
post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war
of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent
state called
Bangladesh. Pakistan in the contemporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the world, following
Indonesia. Pakistan is a
declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim nation to have that status.
Post-1945 era
Between 1953 and 1964,
King Saud reorganized the government of the
monarchy his father,
Ibn Saud,
had created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953),
Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic
Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information
(1963). He also put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (29 years
his junior) in charge of the Ministry of Transport.
In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he
proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature.
Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular
participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the
king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud forwarded the
proposal to the
ulama
asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in
Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived more than three
decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992.
The
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
came into existence in 1960. For the first decade or more of its
existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations.
Tension between
Faisal
and Saud continued to mount until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened
to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to
mobilize the National Guard against Saud. Saud then abdicated and left
for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became
King.
The
Six-Day War of June 5–10, 1967, was fought between
Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the
Suez canal, and may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put
Muammar Gaddafi
in power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi
Arabia through Syria to Lebanon. These developments had the effect of
increasing the importance of
petroleum in
Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1970,
Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's demands for price increases.
In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the
Yom Kippur War, broke out just as oil company began meeting with
OPEC
leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands and
the war strengthened their unity. The Arab defeats in 1967 and 1973
triggered the
1973 oil crisis. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the
West
that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab
world imposed the 1973 oil embargo against the United States and Western
Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil
wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel,
in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the
Arab-Israeli Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.
Persian revolutions
The
Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revolution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's
feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in
Persia and the restriction of the power of the
Shah
(king). Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The
modernist and conservative blocks then began to fight with each other.
World War I intervened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This
weakened the government and threatened the country's independence. The
constitutional monarchy created by the decree of
Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in
Persia as a result of the Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the
Qajar dynasty and the ascension of
Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.
[191]
In 1979 the
Iranian Revolution transformed
Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a
populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and
marja.
Following the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a
referendum established the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as
Supreme Leader.
During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups
fought each other, and the Islamics captured power. Gulf states such as
Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (despite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged
Saddam Hussein to invade Iran,
[192] which resulted in the
Iran-Iraq war,
as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their
own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if
he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collapse.
National period
| Contemporary National period |
Islam in the modern world
Sunni countries
Shia countries
Ibadi countries
|
Arab-Israeli conflict
The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions
and open hostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern
State of Israel as a
Jewish nation state, the consequent
displacement of the
Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the
Arab states and the State of Israel (see related
Israeli-Palestinian conflict).
Despite at first involving only the Arab states bordering Israel,
animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly
Muslim states.
Many countries, individuals and non-governmental organizations
elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons such
as cultural and religious ties with Islam,
Arab culture,
Christianity,
Judaism,
Jewish culture, or for ideological,
human rights, or strategic reasons. While some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider
clash of civilizations between the
Western World and the
Muslim world,
[193][194] others oppose this view.
[195]
Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on
supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by supporters of the
other side in many countries around the world.
Salafi and the Safavid
Some have argued that the development of the two opposite fringes, the
Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam the Twelver Shia version and its reinforcement by the
Iranian Revolution and the
Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the
Iran–Saudi Arabia relations resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to enhance their political interests.
[196][197] Many have argued that these governments, them selves do not conforms to
Islamic economic jurisprudence, and continue to deal in
usury and in
Government bonds.
[198][199][200][201] While their rulers like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and some ayatollah's in Iran on the
List of Iranian people by net worth and the
House of Saud, accumulated huge personal wealth that some have argued is at odds with the Islamic message preached by
Muhammad and the Quran. Wealth that some think should belong in
Bayt al-mal or the welfare state. The
Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The
Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the
Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the
Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era.
Anatolian region
Since the establishment of the
Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a strong tradition of
secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by
Atatürk's Reforms.
Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied
support from the population for the Independence War against the
occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from
the public sphere after the Independence War. The principle of
secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as
1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against
domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong
appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority
of the population, at least nominally, adheres to
Islam in Turkey, the state, which was established with the
Kemalist ideology has no
official religion nor promotes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the
Presidency of Religious Affairs. The
Republic Protests
were a series of mass rallies by Turkish secular citizens that took
place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first protest was the
possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdoğan would alter the
Turkish secularist state.
See also
Notes
- Jump up ^ Milestones of Islamic History
- Jump up ^ Khaddūrī 2002, pp. 19–20
- Jump up ^ Mecca: a literary history of the Muslim Holy Land By Francis E. Peters
- Jump up ^ Umar bin Al Khattab - The Second Caliph of Islam By Abdul Basit Ahmad Page 43 [1]
- Jump up ^ Men Around the Messenger By Khālid Muḥammad Khālid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 20 [2]
- Jump up ^ The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad By Maulana Muhammad Ali Page [3]
- Jump up ^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 [4]
- Jump up ^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus
- Jump up ^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 [5]
- Jump up ^ Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths By Said Öztürk Page 539
- Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 38)
- Jump up ^ Hofmann (2007), p.86
- Jump up ^ Islam: An Illustrated History By Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher Munro-Hay Page 40
- Jump up ^ R.
B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the
Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised
in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University
Press.
- Jump up ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4.
- Jump up ^ Constitution of Medina
- Jump up ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 61 [6]
- Jump up ^ Rahman (1999, p. 40)
- Jump up ^ European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24 [7]
- Jump up ^ History of the Jihad By Leonard Michael Kroll Page 123
- Jump up ^ A History of Byzantium By Timothy E. Gregory page 183
- Jump up ^ Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61 [8]
- Jump up ^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page 11
- Jump up ^ Schimmel,
Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The
Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series 50 (1): 3.
- Jump up ^ The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors By Abu al-Fazl Izzati, A. Ezzati Page 301
- Jump up ^ Islam For Dummies By Malcolm Clark Page
- Jump up ^ Spiritual Clarity By Jackie Wellman Page 51
- Jump up ^ The Koran For Dummies By Sohaib Sultan Page
- Jump up ^ Qur'an: The Surah Al-Nisa, Ch4:v2
- Jump up ^ Qur'an: Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13]
- Jump up ^ Qur'an: Surat An-Nisa' [4:1]
- Jump up ^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32
- Jump up ^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-?Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A. Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [9]
- Jump up ^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A. Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [10]
- Jump up ^ Men Around the Messenger By Khalid Muhammad Khalid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 117 [11]
- Jump up ^ The Cambridge History of Islam:, Volume 2 edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis Page 605 [12]
- Jump up ^ The Early Caliphate By Maulana Muhammad Ali
- Jump up ^ [13]
- Jump up ^ [14]
- Jump up ^ Rahman (1999, p. 37)
- Jump up ^ Rahman (1999, p. 53)
- Jump up ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 232 [15]
- Jump up ^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867
- Jump up ^ Holt (1977a, pp. 67–72)
- Jump up ^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 352
- Jump up ^ Donald Puchala, ‘’Theory and History in International Relations,’’ page 137. Routledge, 2003.
- Jump up ^ W. Montgomery Watt. Khārijite thought in the Umayyad Period. Der Islam. Volume 36, Issue 3, Pages 215–231, ISSN (Online) 1613-0928, ISSN (Print) 0021-1818, doi:10.1515/islm.1961.36.3.215, //1961
- ^ Jump up to: a b The Encyclopædia Britannica by Hugh Chisholm. Page 28
- Jump up ^ Roberts, J: "History of the World.". Penguin, 1994.
- Jump up ^ Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad and the Islamic tradition. New York: Harper Brothers. Page 183.
- Jump up ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung. Page 340.
- Jump up ^ Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I, Volume 1 edited by R. Khanam. Page 543
- Jump up ^ Islam and Politics John L. Esposito - 1998 Page 16
- Jump up ^ Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project By Benjamin Jokisch - 2007 - Page 404
- Jump up ^ The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East Hugh N. Kennedy - 2006 - Page 197
- Jump up ^ A Chronology of Islamic History By H U Rahman Page 106, 129
- Jump up ^ Voyages in World History By Josef W. Meri - Page 248
- Jump up ^ Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 71–83)
- Jump up ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8
- Jump up ^ answering-ansar.org. ch 8.
- Jump up ^ answering-ansar.org. ch 7.
- Jump up ^ Kokab
wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, By Syed Mohammed
Subh-e-Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein
Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh,
Lahore, 1 January 1963. Page 484.
- Jump up ^ History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti
- Jump up ^ History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan
- Jump up ^ The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb
- Jump up ^ In
the Al Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east
populations revolted. In A.H. 102 (720-721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh
governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the
former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and
confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah.
- Jump up ^ *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24913-1 p. 3.
- Jump up ^ von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd Ed.
- Jump up ^ Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press, 1998), 660
- ^ Jump up to: a b J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02
- Jump up ^ Lewis 1993, p. 84
- Jump up ^ Holt 1977a, p. 105
- Jump up ^ Holt 1977b, pp. 661–663
- ^ Jump up to: a b c "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
- Jump up ^ "Islam", The New Encyclopædia Britannica (2005)
- ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600". University of Calagary. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- Jump up ^ "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online
- Jump up ^ Lapidus 2002, p. 54
- Jump up ^ Nasr 2003, p. 121
- Jump up ^ Khaddūrī 2002, pp. 21–22
- Jump up ^ Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd, Everything you wanted to know about Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica.
- Jump up ^ Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt, Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ).
- Jump up ^ for more, see As-Saffah's_Caliphate
- Jump up ^ An
universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time,
Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George
Shelvocke, John Campbell, John Swinton. Page 319
- Jump up ^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R. Chambers, 1890. Page 567.
- Jump up ^ Johannes P. Schadé (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions.
- Jump up ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992
- Jump up ^ Nasr 2003, pp. 121–122
- Jump up ^ Lapidus 1988, p. 129
- Jump up ^ The Encyclopaedia Britannica. A. and C. Black, 1878. Pg 578+
- Jump up ^ Hindu
rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed
with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran
were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as
were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the
first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet.
Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing
problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In
214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn
Humayd.
- Jump up ^ The
Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and
intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty
oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize
religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his
subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and
other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions
relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state
of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he
believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his
profession.
- Jump up ^ Had
he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have
made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the
"Almagest".
- Jump up ^ Muhammad
ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid
Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the
Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth,
SUNY, Albany, 1991
- Jump up ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. ISBN 0-88706-875-8, ISBN 978-0-88706-875-1
- Jump up ^ Its
minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral
ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue
glass.
- Jump up ^ A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives.
- Jump up ^ Examples of the former include the loss of Mosul in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the Kakūyid dynasty of Isfahān, whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran.
- Jump up ^ Bowen, Harold (1928). The Life and Times of ʿAlí Ibn ʿÍsà: The Good Vizier. Cambridge University Press. p. 385.
- Jump up ^ R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. ISBN 0-521-20093-8
- Jump up ^ Hanne, Eric, J. (2007). Putting the Caliph in His Place: Power, Authority, and the Late Abbasid Caliphate. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 55. ISBN 9780838641132.
- Jump up ^ William Muir. The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall.
- Jump up ^ Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213.
- Jump up ^ William Muir, The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall.
- Jump up ^ ʻIzz al-Dīn Ibn al-Athīr, Donald Sidney Richards, The
chronicle of Ibn al-Athīr for the crusading period from al-Kāmil
fī'l-ta'rīkh: The years 491-541/1097-1146 : the coming of the Franks and
the Muslim response.
- Jump up ^ Martin
Sicker. The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the
Siege of Vienna. Greenwood Publishing Group, Jan 1, 2000. Pg 75.
- Jump up ^ Jean Richard, The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem: Volume 1. 1979. Page 36.
- Jump up ^ It is supposed by an emissary of the Hashshashins,
who had no love for the Caliph. Modern historians have suspected that
Mas'ud instigated the murder although the two most important historians
of the period Ibn al-Athir and Ibn al-Jawzi did not speculate on this
matter.
- Jump up ^ William Muir. book The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall, 1924.
- Jump up ^ Grigor of Akanc-The history of the nation of archers, (tr. R.P.Blake) 303
- Jump up ^ Kalistriat Salia-History of the Georguan Nation, p.210
- Jump up ^ Thomas T. Allsen-Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia, p.84
- Jump up ^ Bernard Lewis. The Political Language of Islam. University of Chicago Press, Jun 11, 1991.
- Jump up ^ Ann K. S. Lambton. State and Government in Medieval Islam. Psychology Press, 1981 Pg 138.
- Jump up ^ Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr. A Concise History of the Middle East.
- ^ Jump up to: a b Islamic Finance: Law, Economics, and Practice By Mahmoud A. El-Gamal Page 122 [16]
- ^ Jump up to: a b The
Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and
Military History edited by Spencer C. Tucker, Priscilla Mary Roberts
Page 917 [17]
- ^ Jump up to: a b The Iraq Effect: The Middle East After the Iraq War By Frederic M. Wehrey Page 91 [18]
- Jump up ^ "Mahdia: Historical Background". Commune-mahdia.gov.tn.
- Jump up ^ Beeson, Irene (September/October 1969). "Cairo, a Millennial". Saudi Aramco World: 24, 26–30. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
- Jump up ^ Firestone, R. (2008). An introduction to Islam for Jews. Philadelphia: JPS/Jewish Publication Society. Page 66
- Jump up ^ Lane,
J.-E., Redissi, H., & Ṣaydāwī, R. (2009). Religion and politics:
Islam and Muslim civilization. Farnham, England: Ashgate Pub. Company.
Page 83
- Jump up ^ Cairo_of_the_mind, oldroads.org
- Jump up ^ John Bagnell Bury. The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 2. Macmillan, 1913. Pg 379.
- Jump up ^ al-Qaim bi-Amrillah. archive.mumineen.org
- Jump up ^ Collins 2004, p. 139
- Jump up ^ Hourani 2003, p. 41
- Jump up ^ Glubb, John Bagot (1966). The course of empire: The Arabs and their successors. Prentice-Hall. p. 128.
- Jump up ^ Glick, Thomas F. (2005). Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. BRILL. p. 102. ISBN 90-04-14771-3.
- Jump up ^ Luscombe, David Edward; Jonathan Riley-Smith (2004). The new Cambridge medieval history. Cambridge University Press. p. 599. ISBN 0-521-41410-5.
- Jump up ^ O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (1983). A History of Medieval Spain. Cornell University Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-8014-9264-5.
- Jump up ^ Constable, Olivia Remie (1997). "The Political Dilemma of a Granadan Ruler". Medieval Iberia: Readings from Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Sources. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 103. ISBN 0-8122-1569-9.
- Jump up ^ This
was likely because al-Andalus was a land besieged by many different
loyalties, and the proclamation of caliph would have likely caused much
unrest. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would, however, take up the title of
caliph.
- Jump up ^ Michael
Hamilton Morgan. Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of Muslim
Scientists, Thinkers, and Artists . National Geographic Books, 2008.
- Jump up ^ The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Volumes 15-16. C. Knight, 1839. Pg 385
- Jump up ^ Near
the end of his life, it is said, though, that Abd al-Rahman became
increasingly paranoid and sequestered himself in his palaces.
- Jump up ^ P.
M. Holt, Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis. The
Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press, Apr 21, 1977. Pg 411
- Jump up ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
- Jump up ^ Fierro, Maribel (2005). Abd-al-Rahman III of Córdoba. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-384-4.
- Jump up ^ Ibn Idhari (1860) [Composed c. 1312]. Al-Bayan al-Mughrib [Historias de Al-Andalus] (in Spanish). Volume 1. trans. Francisco Fernández y González. Granada: Francisco Ventura y Sabatel. OCLC 557028856.
- Jump up ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (1894). The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Genealogical Tables with Historical Introductions. Westminster: Archibald Constable and Company. OCLC 1199708.
- Jump up ^ Abd_ar-Rahman_III Assumption_of_the_Caliphate
- Jump up ^ Henry Hallam. View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages, Volume 1. W. J. Widdleton, 1870. Pg 49.
- Jump up ^ The Literary Era: A Monthly Repository of Literary and Miscellaneous Information, Volume 5. Porter & Coates, 1898. Pg 133.
- Jump up ^ Sylvia
Schein. Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the
Catholic West (1099-1187). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Jan 1, 2005. Pg 19.
- Jump up ^ Peter Lock. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge, Apr 15, 2013. Pg 180
- Jump up ^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate) http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html
- Jump up ^ Tschanz, David W. (July/August 2007). "History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut". Saudi Aramco World.
- Jump up ^ Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680
- Jump up ^ The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Abū al-Faz̤l ʻIzzatī, A. Ezzati, pg. 274
- Jump up ^ Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravilʹ Bukharaev, pg. 145
- Jump up ^ Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–77. (Online Copy: The
History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period;
by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company
1867–1877 — This online copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
- Jump up ^ Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press.
- Jump up ^ Hourani 2003, p. 85
- Jump up ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Brill, Leiden.
- Jump up ^ For more, see Mamluk architecture.
- ^ Jump up to: a b A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress
- Jump up ^ Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Heritage.com)
- Jump up ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world. Brill. 2007. p. 264
- Jump up ^ Y. Benhima, "The Idrisids (789- 974)". qantara-med.org, 2008.
- Jump up ^
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Almoravides". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press
- Jump up ^ History of the Almonades, Reinhart Dozy, Second edition, 1881.
- Jump up ^ Nicolini,
B., & Watson, P.-J. (2004). Makran, Oman, and Zanzibar:
Three-terminal cultural corridor in the western Indian Ocean, 1799-1856.
Leiden: Brill. Page 35
- Jump up ^ Nimtz, Jr., August H. (1980). Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Order in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
- Jump up ^ "World’s second oldest mosque is in India". Bahrain tribune. Archived from the original on 2006-07-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09.
- Jump up ^ Srivastava, Ashirvadi Lal (1929). The Sultanate Of Delhi 711-1526 A D. Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company.
- Jump up ^ Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398- A.D. 1707. New York : C. Scribner's Sons.
- Jump up ^ Khamouch, Mohammed. "Jewel of Chinese Muslim’s Heritage". FTSC.
- Jump up ^ Gustave Le Bon. 1956. Hadarat al Arab. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arabes. 3rd Print. Cairo. P.95.
- Jump up ^ Suryanegara, Ahmad Mansyur.2009. API Sejarah. 1st Printed. Bandung. Indonesia. P. 2 - 3
- Jump up ^ Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guilaume, (Editor), 1965. The Legacy of Islam. Oxford University Press, New York, P.87.
- Jump up ^ Nasr 2003, p. 143
- Jump up ^ Spencer C. Tucker, The encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American wars: a political, social, and military history, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2009, page 419
- Jump up ^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 226–230
- ^ Jump up to: a b Armstrong 2000, p. 116
- Jump up ^ For more, see Forms of vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire
- ^ Jump up to: a b c Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 211–219
- Jump up ^ Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osman Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321
- Jump up ^ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopædia Iranica
- Jump up ^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 199–204
- Jump up ^ Esposito (2010, p. 146)
- Jump up ^ Holt 1977a, p. 263
- Jump up ^ Kohn, G. C. (2006). Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. Page 94.
- Jump up ^ Koprulu 1992, p. 109
- Jump up ^ Koprulu 1992, p. 111
- Jump up ^ www.muslimdecline.blogspot.com
- Jump up ^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 961, 969
- Jump up ^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 971–972
- Jump up ^ McNeill, Bentley & Christian 2005, p. 1402
- Jump up ^ East Bengal — a part of the newly created Pakistan — later becomes independent.
- Jump up ^ Cyrus Ghani, Sīrūs Ġanī. Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris, Jan 6, 2001.
- Jump up ^ Farrokh, Kaveh. Iran at War: 1500–1988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781780962214.
- Jump up ^ Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal). Volume 7, No. 4 - December 2003
- Jump up ^ Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion (Israel Science and Technology)
- Jump up ^ Arab-American
Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a
Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st
Century
- Jump up ^ The Three Circles of War: Understanding the Dynamics of Conflict in Iraq By Heather S. Gregg Page 66 [19]
- Jump up ^ After Khomeini:Iran Under His Successors By Said Amir Arjomand Page 195 [20]
- Jump up ^ Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 [21]
- Jump up ^ Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar
- Jump up ^ Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglund Page 196 [22]
- Jump up ^ Islam and Politics By John L. Esposito
References and further reading
Books, articles, and journals
- Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-679-64040-0.
- Bloom; Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power.
- Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510799-9.
- Hart, Michael (1978). The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history. New York: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1057-9.
- Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4.
- Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2.
- Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8.
- Khaddūrī, Majīd (2002). The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar. JHU Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0-8018-6975-7, 9780801869754 .
- Koprulu, Mehmed Fuad; Leiser, Gary (1992). The Origins of the. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-0819-1.
- Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic societes. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77056-4.
- Lewis, B. (1993). The Arabs in History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285258-2.
- Rahman, F. (1982). Islam & Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-70284-7.
- Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2003). Islam:Religion, History and Civilization. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 0-06-050714-4.
- Sonn, Tamara (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-0900-9.
- Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INUPress. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
- Hourani, Albert (2002). A History of the Arab Peoples. Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-21591-2.
- al-Balādhurī, A. Y.; Hitti, P. K. (1916). The
origins of the Islamic state: Being a translation from the Arabic
accompanied with annotations, geographic and historic notes of the
Kitâbfutûḥ al-buldân of al-Imâm abu l'Abbâs Aḥmad ibn-Jâbir al-Balâdhuri. New York.
- Williams, H. S., ed. (1904). The historians' history of the world: Parthians, Sassanids, and Arabs. The crusades and the papacy. New York: The Outlook Company.
- Le, S. G. (1900). Baghdad during the Abbasid caliphate: From contemporary Arabic and Persian sources. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2006). Traditions and Encounters: A Global Perspective on the Past. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Zaydān, J.; Margoliouth, D. S. (1907). "Being the fourth part of Jurjí Zaydán's history of Islamic civilization.". Umayyads and ʻAbbásids. Leyden: E.J. Brill, imprimerie orientale.
- "Islam Aflame with Revolt". The World's work. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 1900.
- Smith, Elder (1877). The life of Mahomet: from original sources.
- Irving, W. (1868). Mahomet and his successors. New York: Putnam.
- Sale, G.; Psalmanazar, G.; Bower, A.; Shelvocke, G.; Campbell, J.; Swinton, J. (779). A universal history: From the earliest accounts to the present time. 21. London: C. Bathurst.
- *Brill Archive (ed.). A history of muslim historiography.
Encyclopedias
- P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W. P. Heinrichs (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.
- Berkshire Encyclopedia of World History 4. Berkshire Publishing Group. 2005. ISBN 978-0-9743091-0-1.
- The New Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Incorporated; Rev Ed edition. 2005. ISBN 978-1-59339-236-9.
- Baynes, T. S. (1888). The Encyclopædia Britannica: A dictionary of
arts, sciences, and general literature. New York, N.Y: H.G. Allen. Page 545 - 606.
- In Pace, E. A. (1922). The Catholic encyclopedia: An
international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine,
discipline and history of the Catholic Church. New York: Encyclopedia Press. "Mohammed and Mohammedanism.". Pg. 424–428
External links
